Contents

Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics
1.1 What is language?
1.2 The design features of language
1.3 The origin of language
1.4 What is linguistics
1.5 The scope of linguistics
1.6 A brief history of linguistics
1.6.1 Saussure as the father of modern linguistics
1.6.2 American structuralism
1.6.3 Generative linguistics
1.6.4 Functional linguistics
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology : The Sounds and Sound Patterns of Language
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Phonetics
2.2.1 Speech organs
2.2.2 Consonants
2.2.3 Vowels
2.2.4 Transcription of speech sounds
2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 Phoneme
2.3.2 Phone and allophone
2.3.3 Phonotactics
2.3.4 Prosodic features: stress, tone and intonation
2.3.5 Co-articulation effects
2.4 Summary
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 3 Morphology: The Word Structure of Language
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The words of language
3.3 The structure of words
3.4 Morpheme, morph and allomorph
3.5 Classification of morphemes
3.5.1 Free morphemes and bound morphemes
3.5.2 Roots and affixes
3.5.3 Inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes
3.6 Word of formation processes
3.6.1 Derivation
3.6.2 Compounding
3.6.3 Conversion
3.6.4 Blending
3.6.5 Backformation
3.6.6 Abbreviation or shortening
3.7 Sumarry
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 4 Syntax: The Sentences Structure of Language
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sentence structure
4.2.1 Definition of sentence
4.2.2 The linear structure of sentence
4.2.3 The hierarchial structure of sentence
4.3 The traditional approach
4.4 The structural approach
4.4.1 Immediate constituent analysis
4.4.2 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
4.5 The transformational-generative approach
4.5.1 The TG model of grammar
4.5.2 Syntactic structure
4.5.3 Movement
4.6 The functional approach
4.6.1 Functions of langguage
4.6.2 Functional analysis of syntactic structure
4.7 Summary
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 5 Semantics: The Meaning of Language
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Approaches to meaning
5.3 Sense and reference
5.4 Word meaning
5.4.1 Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning
5.4.2 Classification of lexical meaning
5.4.3 Sense relations
5.4.4 Semantic field
5.5 Sentence meaning
5.5.1 Definition of sentence meaning
5.5.2 Semantic relations at the sentential level
5.6 Ambiguity
5.7 Semantic analysis
5.7.1 Componential Analysis
5.7.2 Predication Analysis
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 6 Pragmatics: The Use of Language in Context
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Pragmatics as a new branch of linguistics
6.2.1 Defining pragmatics
6.2.2 Syntax, semantics and pragmatics
6.3 Speech Act Theory
6.3.1 Constatives and performatives
6.3.2 Locution, illovution, and perlocution
6.3.3 Felicity conditions
6.3.4 Classification of speech acts
6.4 Theory of conversational of speech acts
6.4.1 The notion of implicature
6.4.2 Cooperative Principle and its maxims
6.4.3 Flouting the maxims
6.5 Politeness Principle
6.5.1 Politeness: The principle and the maxims
6.5.2 Clashes between maxims
6.6 Summary
Questions and Exercises
Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis: Language above Sentence
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What is discourse analysis?
7.3 Cohesion
7.3.1 Reference
7.3.2 Substitution
7.3.3 Ellipsis
7.3.4 Conjunction
7.3.5 Lexical cohesion
7.4 Coherence
7.5 The structure of discourse
7.5.1 Thematic structure and information structure
7.5.2 The structure of conversations
7.5.3 Patterns in written discourse
7.6 Connections
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics: Language through Time
8.1 Introduction
8.2 When language changes
8.3 How Language change
8.3.1 Phonological change
8.3.2 Lexical change
8.3.3 Grammatical change
8.4 Why language changes
8.4.1 External causes
8.4.2 Internal causes
8.5 Summary
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 9 Stylistic: Language and Literature
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Important views on style
9.2.1 Style as deviation
9.2.2 Style as choice
9.2.3 Style as foregrounding
9.3 Stylistic analysis
9.3.1 Phonological analysis
9.3.2 Graphological analysis
9.3.3 Lexical analysis
9.3.4 Syntactic analysis
9.3.5 Semantic analysis
9.3.6 Pragmatic analysis
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 10 Sociolinguistics: Language and Society
10.1 Introuduction
10.2 The relation between language and society
10.3 Speech communitu and speech variety
10.4 Dialect
10.4.1 Regional dialect
10.4.2 Social dialect
10.4.3 Standard dialect
10.5 Register
10.6 Language contact and contact languages
10.6.1 Lingua franca
10.6.2 Pidgin
10.6.3 Creole
10.7 Choosing a code
10.7.1 Diglossia
10.7.2 Biligualism
10.7.3 Code-switching
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 11 Intercultural Communication: Language and Culture
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definition of culture
11.3 The relationship between language and culture
11.4 Naming the world through language
11.4.1 Color terms
11.4.2 Kinship terms
11.4.3 Culture-loaded words
11.5 Communicative patterns and cultures
11.5.1 Address forms
11.5.2 Greetings
11.5.3 Giving and accepting compliments
11.5.4 High context versus low context
11.6 Language and thought: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
11.7 Intercultural communication
11.7.1 Intercultural communication as a field of research
11.7.2 Conquering obstacles in intercultural communication
11.8 Summary
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 12 Psycolinguistics: Language and Psychology
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Language and the brain: The biological foundations of language
12.2.1 Cerebral lateralization and language functions
12.2.2 Evidence of lateralization
12.3 Language comprehension
12.3.1 Human information processing system
12.3.2 The mental lexicon
12.3.3 Sentence comprehension
12.3.4 Discourse comprehension
12.4 Language production
12.5 Language acquisition
12.5.1 First language, second language and foreign language
12.5.2 First language acquisition
12.5.3 Second language acquistion
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 13 Cognitive Linguistics: Language and Cognition
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Categories and categorization
13.3 Conceptuaal metaphors
13.4 Conceptual metonymies
13.5 Image schemas
13.6 Iconicity
13.6.1 Iconicity of order
13.6.2 Iconicity of distance
13.6.3 Iconicity of complexity
Questions and Exercises


Chapter 14 Applied Linguistics: Language Teaching and Learning
14.1 Introduction
14.2 How is language learned?
14.2.1 Behaviorism
14.2.2 The innateness hypothesis: universal grammar
14.2.3 Interlanguage theory
14.2.4 The input hypothesis
14.2.5 The output hypothesis
14.3 Individual differences in language learning
14.3.1 Language aptitude
14.3.2 Learning style
14.3.3 Motivation
14.3.4 Anxiety
14.3.5 Learning Strategies
14.4 Approaches and methods in foreign language teaching
14.4.1 The Grammar-Translation Method
14.4.2 The Direct method
14.4.3 The Audiolingual Method
14.4.4 The Communicative Approach
14.4.5 The Task-based Approach
14.5 Language Testing
14.5.1 Types of test
14.5.2 Qualities of a good test
Questions and Exercises
References
Glossary



 

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